Social Darwinism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Social Darwinism - Essay Example â€Å"Social Darwinism† is a term used to refer to the application of ideas and concepts applied to the social world which are allegedly derived from Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution (Leonard, 2009). There is much controversy surrounding Social Darwinism, its historical significance, its usage and applicability and most importantly its association with some of the known social scientist in history such as Darwin and Spencer. The debate around the definition of the term has in most cases revolved around whether or not Social Darwinism came out of the works of Darwin and other theorists that wrote about the role of biology to explain the social hierarchies present during that era, as Europe, America and other continents witnessed the aftermath of industrialization. There are basically two types of approaches to the definition of the term that have been put forward to explain the different approaches theorists have taken in order to explain the term (Crook, 1996). The â€Å"generalist† approach basically refers to Social Darwinism as the analysis of social inequality by the help of evolutionary and developmental ideas using Darwinian terminologies such as â€Å"survival of the fittest† but not explicitly relying on the original works of Darwin (Weiler). The second type known as the â€Å"restrictionist† approach in contrast, argues that a mere use of phrases that represent the work of a theorist such as â€Å"survival of fittest† does not define the theorist as a Social Darwinist (Weiler). According to the broad definition, the theory came to denote racism, imperialism and capitalism during what came to be known as the Gilded Age where, whilst the poor suffered the consequences of Industrialization in the American society, those that owned the factories and benefited from the wealth they were acquiring, although fewer in number, used Social Darwinism to justify why such notions as â€Å"survival of the fittest† put forward by Darwin and Spencer made it logical for only those that were biologically gifted or a so called â€Å"superior race† to be market leaders and worthy of acquiring the most wealth and superior positions in politics (Hodgson 2004). There is also debate on when the term was first used and while the works of theorists like Hofstadter gave a strict definition of who the Social Darwinist are, others such as Hodgson have argued that these theorists present as facts what are basically just labels (Hodgson 2004). The history of the term is a controversial issue. While some say that the term was first used in the late 1800s and was associated with known social theorists like Spencer and Sumner (Wieler), for example Spencer’s Synthetic Philosophy is one of the first pieces of literature where the term can be traced (Hodgson 2004), others argue that Spencer never used the term Social Darwinism and that he is deemed one of the founders of the theory only based on assoc iations made between the theory and Spencer’s work (Hodgson, 2004). This paper will aim to present a critique of the theory â€Å"Social Darwinism† as presented in the book â€Å"Social Darwinism in American Thought† by Hofstadter that proved to be a very influential piece on the theory. In order to do so I will look at the work of revisionists such as Hodgson and Leonard who

Initial response to Malcolm X and Black Rage Essay Example for Free

Initial response to Malcolm X and Black Rage Essay In the essay, Cornel West tries to explain how Malcolm X’s â€Å"Black Rage† articulation wasnt directed at white americans only, but also to black americans who view their lives and minds through what West describes as â€Å"White lenses†. West also claims that Malcolm X’s idea of â€Å"psychic conversation† would promote blacks to turn that rage to love and appreciation of their own culture and self worth. Another claim West mentions is that the idea of psychic conversation struck fear into black professionals, due to their constant surrounding of white social circles, but at the same time understand the idea precisely for the exact same reason. West compares these kind of individuals to Du Bois’s idea of â€Å"double consciousness†. Blacks living between their own live and whites, never settle in either, yet crave acceptance mainly from whites. ! West also believed that Malcolm X viewed black equality as a farfetched possibility due to the majority of white racists, and black victims of democracy. What interests me the most is that Malcolm X feared cultural hybridity even though he, himself, comes from a hybrid culture. But eventually Malcolm X began to slowly remove that fear after looking into the acceptance of humanity regardless of race, class, or gender in the Islamic regimes of Muslims in the Middle East. In the end of the essay, West thinks that future generations should take Malcolm X’s â€Å"black rage† and â€Å"psychic conversation† as an example of rejection to any sorts of inequality. I strongly agree with West’s idea to follow such examples in order to achieve change in human equality and acceptance.

Macbeth by William Shakespeare :: essays research papers

In the play Macbeth by William Shakespeare there is a major conflict throughout the whole play. The main character Macbeth is faced with many decisions. The key decision that Macbeth makes that leads to his death is his decision to kill King Duncan. The opportunity cost would be keeping his loyalty to the king and his country. Macbeth, who is the Thane of Cawdor and already Thane of Glamis, has everything going for him. He has a good heart, but there is only one thing which keeps him from continuing to be a good person. The love of his life, Lady Macbeth, wants him to commit a heinous crime. She wants him to kill King Duncan so he could be crowned king and her Queen. Macbeth is manipulated and faced with the opportunity cost of killing the king. MACBETH. If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me, without my stir† (1.3.34-36). This is Macbeth trying to decide whether or not he should kill the king, but in doing so he would be faced with other predicaments. The key decision Macbeth makes, which is to kill the king, leads to his own death and his moral downfall. Macbeth has a huge decision to make, to kill King Duncan or not kill him. The opportunity cost of killing King Duncan is Macbeth will get crowned king. The advantage of not killing him and waiting is he will gain king right away if he waits. The disadvantage of not killing him is he has to wait and could not get crowned king. He also may die before that happens. On the contrary the advantage of killing Duncan is he gets crowned right away and gets major status. The disadvantage is the murder could backfire on him and Macbeth could get killed while being king. People also would not respect him or his leadership if they thought he killed King Duncan. LADY MACBETH. When you durst do it, then you were a man: And, to be more than what you were, you would be so much more the man (1.7.48-53). Macbeth’s decision was based on Lady Macbeth’s manipulation. She would mess with his ego and threaten his love for her until her committed the crime. Macbeth wanted to obtain king the holy way or the right way, but Lady Macbeth had other intentions, such as, killing King Duncan.

My Mugged Response Essay

In lesson 1 we demonstrated our perception of Dig and Marky through physicalising there characters. The aspects of the drama medium we used were, freeze frame, improvisation, thought track, mime, movement and gesture. As a class we read and comprehended pages 5-21. They’re about Markey and dig interchanging there burglarized items. After we read through the play, sir split us into 2 groups. One group: Markys, One group: Digs. We had to show a scene from their morning routine (in the shop). I got put into the group of Dig, I interpreted Dig in a behaviour which was to procrastinate. I conducted Dig in lifeless ,manner. I showed that dig was lazy by my use of drama medium (movement) and acting skills. My actions were very postponing and sluggish letting the audience know , my character was extremely careless. I played Dig in a careless, lifeless manor, because from the play we know that he is very self-centred and in ones self. In lesson 6 we had to summarise how each character might feel about the murder. In lesson 6, we used guilt spilt staging, voice & contrasts, We used one of the forms of stimuli of ‘play scripts’ . In the play script we explored the line ‘ I told him not to come back didn’t I mel’ to understand how all the characters feel guilty. The characters feel guilty because marky has been murdered. All the characters feel conscience-stricken and guilt ridden. The script changes throughout the ending of the play it raises the tension by shortening the dialogue. The characters speech becomes shortened and there words become more scarce and sudden . We then did a police interview by the use of drama medium ; split staging. Split staging can use two or more different levels, and the audience can see characters better if one group is behind the other and using the raised level. Me and shea was the police officers interviewing dig and sophie which in this case was Hodan and Arthur. We asked them questions such as , how do you feel about the death of markey ? They replied with very abrupt replies as we know thy was very heartbroken about the tragic news. In lesson 3 we had to explore characters reactions to the morning of the murder. The drama mediums we used were hot seating, role play , characterisation, action, plot content. We read pages 22-28 . Then we hot seated marky, dig, leon , taylor soph or mel. When it was my turn to hot seat I was soph. My group asked me questions such as how do you feel towards leon? How do you feel about your school life and home life? I replied in the character as soph as much as possible. I had a lot of positive feed back on my use of hotseating . Eisa said ‘’ carlie answered the questions well linking back to the script and what we already know about soph and she answered immediately and confident ‘’ In my opinion Jerome Richardson was hot seated outstandingly! Using him sense of emotion very well showing us his emotion by the way he spoke and the way he looked uncomfortable with certain questions . Jerome really played the character breathtakingly when asked the questions. He stayed in character and was very believable. Then we did a role play off text improvisation showing characters feeling before the murder (using thought track) By doing a off text improvisation we are showing out understanding of how much we know about the character. i was mel in the scene so I took all I knew about mel and pretended I was her thinking about how she would act and what she would do.

Federal Budget Deficit

Excessive Borrowing: Our Federal Government's Budget Deficit Maria comes home one day earlier than usual. Her family, two daughters of age five and eight and a stay-at-home husband, is surprised to see her so early and unexpectedly. The tired look on her face reveals the experience she had at work. She brings out a sluggish smile as her daughters rush up to greet her with their warm embraces, reminding her of the happiness they constantly provide but also saddened by their questionable future. Quietly, she sits down in front of her anxious spouse as he patiently awaits the news, sensing the tension in the air.Many people like Maria face the ultimate doom of losing the only method they can gain family income, especially in homes where only one spouse is employed. Laying off workers is the government's â€Å"plan† for reducing America's deficit. Of course, getting rid of the executive CEO whose company had a rough year would be bad because we all know not to bite the hand that f eeds you. The federal government is planning on making the gap between revenue and borrowing smaller by making cuts here and there throughout certain interests of America.This makes sense because in all economic situations, if you are spending more than you have, then you either need to cut back on how much you spend or manipulate ways to increase revenue. Cutting military spending has been big in debate whether as to reduce our defenses or not. Many people speculate that military cuts are sound in reducing the deficit because it is too large for us to afford today. It is overlooked that we have been dropping our armed forces significantly over several decades since the early 1980s, from 2. 1 million to 1. 4 million in 2010 (Samuelson).The resulting savings of lowering military spending would be little, since there isn't much else to cut from the already reduced forces. If our national security is a large concern, especially after 9/11, then why expose both troops and citizens at ri sk of terrorist attacks and cyber warfare? The government's job is to protect the nation and its people, and putting money towards improved technology and training is necessary for upholding America's safety and reputation. The question of the budget deficit also involves the issue of raising taxes, one that has not gone smoothly since Britain's reign over the colonies.Many people argue the importance of increasing the taxes on the rich in order to support our economy. Although it makes sense that those with more money should be paying more on taxes than lower income people, but the evidence gathered fails to give strength to the claim that many believe is a solution to the deficit problem. For instance, Obama's plan for raising the taxes for â€Å"those making more than $250,00 is expected to bring in merely $0. 7 trillion† compared to the overwhelming $13 trillion to be accumulated over the same time period (Malm, Sanandaji).It is obvious how big the gap is between the two intimidating numbers, and the government is just wasting its breath about the potential tax hikes. All the talk about the inevitable decisions of either cutting government programs or increasing taxes to save our deficit, and our economy overall, seems ominous and depressing(Aaron). However, our federal government is looking at this the wrong way. It's not about how much a program is cut or how large the numeric value of the deficit is; it's about what and where the money is being invested to enable consistent growth in the upcoming future(Conason).Think back on the potential tax hikes and how it could barely affect our economy. If increased taxes leads to slight growth in revenue, then won't tax cuts lead to loss in revenue? This is another misconception many people, and the government, have about the Bush tax cuts. It lowered the total federal tax burden in order to â€Å"increase market incentives to work, save, and invest and thus create jobs and increase economic growth† (Foy). In essence, the tax cuts focused on the long run instead of the potential losses that immediately followed.Many skeptics challenge the reasoning for investing so much money into helping so many other countries when that money could instead help us improve internal affairs. After all, foreign aid spending has increased to $50 billion a year today, which could be put towards funding education to ensure that more kids go to college and possibly affecting the innovation of the future(Morris). Giving more than you receive is nice, but when it involves a country's financial crisis, maybe it's best if Santa cuts back some of this year's presents.And although the argument may be valid, lending out a helping hand can create more allies than enemies to help us in return when we need it. In fact, foreign aid only accounts for 0. 5 percent of the federal budget (Stearn). Compared to all the other matters at hand that the government is worrying about, the amount of spending put into aidi ng poorer countries is positive in both a moral aspect and a political aspect. The federal budget deficit that we put so much trust in having handled for us is not to be dismissed so easily. This isn't just about the future of our current generation, but also our children's future.Our government fails to look back at history and see how growth has improved our economy and made it flourish. Ultimately, what's at stake here if nothing is done is our jobs, job benefits, our safety, and, overall, having a weak country whose currency is based off of its own good name. By no means is having a high deficit bad, and neither is creating a budget deficit to combat it, but it's all about how the government is handling it, and less spending doesn't always mean more revenue. Works Cited Samuelson, Robert J. â€Å"The Dangerous Debate over Cutting Military Spending. http://www. washingtonpost. com/opinions/the-dangerous-debate-over-cutting-military-spending/2011/10/28/gIQAnPWEXM_story. html. 201 1. Rpt. in  The US Deficit. Ed. Kathy Jennings and Lynn M. Zott. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Sanandaji, Tino, and Arvid Malm. â€Å"Raising Taxes Will Not Resolve the Budget Deficit. â€Å"The US Deficit. Ed. Kathy Jennings and Lynn M. Zott. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from â€Å"Obama's Folly: Why Taxing the Rich Is No Solution. http://www. american. com/archive/2011/august/obamasfollytaxingtherich/ article_print. 2011. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Conason, Joe. â€Å"Deficits Do Not Matter. †Ã‚  The Federal Budget Deficit. Ed. Susan Hunnicutt. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2010. At Issue. Rpt. from â€Å"Dick Cheney Was Right: Deficits Don't Matter—and Republicans Who are Complaining About Barack Obama's Spending Are Hypocrites. †Ã‚  Salon. com. 2009. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Aaron, Henry J. â€Å"The Un ited States Needs to Address Two Distinct Budget Deficits. Government Spending. Ed. Noel Merino. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from â€Å"A Tale of Two Deficits: Stop Treating Them Like They're the Same Thing! †Ã‚  New Republic  (1 June 2011). Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Foy, Andrew, and Brenton Stransky. â€Å"The Bush Tax Cuts Were Good for Economic Growth. †Ã‚  Government Spending. Ed. Noel Merino. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from â€Å"Lying About Bush's Tax Cuts. â€Å"www. americanthinker. com. 2010. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013.Stearns, Richard. â€Å"Congress Should Not Cut Foreign Aid. †Ã‚  Is Foreign Aid Necessary? Ed. David Haugen and Susan Musser. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. At Issue. Rpt. from â€Å"Cutting Foreign Aid: Not the America I Love. †Ã‚  Huffington Post. 2011. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Morris, Di ck. â€Å"Congress Should Cut Foreign Aid. †Ã‚  Is Foreign Aid Necessary? Ed. David Haugen and Susan Musser. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. At Issue. Rpt. from â€Å"Cut Foreign Aid Budget Now. †Ã‚  http://thehill. com  (29 Mar. 2011). Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013.

Gay and Lesbian Studies Essay

Gay and Lesbian Studies Essay If you are assigned to write a paper on gay and lesbian studies – you will have to mould your own personal opinion on this matter as well as prove your opinion by providing vivid examples and strong argumentation. Gay and lesbian essay has to be a paper showing either tolerance of gay and lesbian relationships or disapproval on the contrary. Basically, a gay and lesbian essay – is written for you to be able to think and convince the reader of your opinion. In order to succeed in this assignment – your academic paper should be logical and well balanced. The message that you want to deliver in your essay, term paper, research paper should not cause any objections, and if it does – these objections need to be forecasted and addressed. Another good technique in writing a paper of this type – is to show all the pros and cons of gay and lesbian relationships. You need to be able to observe the gay and lesbian relationships from the inside, and try thinking the way gays and lesbians do. Only if you manage to do so – you will be able to claim yourself as a neutral party. There is no better argumentation than history. You can easily make history and historical events prove your point, without taking into consideration of are you for or against gay and lesbian relationships. Why not have an expert writer write your custom gay and lesbian studies paper for you? You can delegate your assignment to CustomWritings.com, and we will pleasantly amaze you with the quality of our custom written papers. CustomWritings.com can help you with this assignment. Many of our writers are proficient in gay and lesbian relations studies, and we can write the custom paper for you. If you think that this paper is simply unbearable – try asking CustomWritings.com for help.

Was Germany Responsible for the Outbreak of the First World War essays

Was Germany Responsible for the Outbreak of the First World War essays The First World War was a devastating war that effected many places and also very many lives. Because of the effects of the war people were determined to search for the country that was to blame for all the disaster created. The outbreak was contingent on a determining number of factors. These factors included nationalism that was being spread throughout Europe during the time before World War I had started and the alliance system. Although Germany was not all to blame for the outbreak of World War I, it did contribute more than a fare share in its involvement in the alliance system, nationalism, the arms race, and emulation between countries and colonies. Previously, before the start of World War I, the dominating powers of Europe (Russia, France, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, and Germany) were experiencing various problems, which caused the relationships between each power to be extremely edgy and undependable. All five powers were just beginning to adapt to the industrial revolution within their own country, which did not help the matter of dealing with other countries. At the same time, a strong sense of nationalism was brewing throughout the countries of Europe causing many more problems with how to deal with other countries when ones own citizens dislikes anothers own. Nationalism brought about competitive manners amongst Europe, causing aggressive results at times. Because of the creation of the German Empire in 1871 Germany feared an attack was coming due to the mass jealously of Germanys advancing industry and military antecedents. By this time Germany seemed to be the most advanced in military and in industry, so in order for self-defense of each European country, alliance agreements were reached. Great Britain, France and Russia made the Triple Entente, while the opposing powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy created the Triple Alliance. Germany began becoming a country of ...

2012 Hurricane Names

2012 Hurricane Names 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 Below you will find the listing of hurricane names for the Atlantic Ocean for the year 2012. For every year, there is a pre-approved list of tropical storm and hurricane names. These lists have been generated by the National Hurricane Center since 1953. At first, the lists consisted of only female names; however, since 1979, the lists alternate between male and female. Hurricanes are named alphabetically from the list in chronological order. Thus the first tropical storm or hurricane of the year has a name that begins with A and the second is given the name that begins with B. The lists contain hurricane names that begin from A to W, but exclude names that begin with a Q or U. There are six lists that continue to rotate. The lists only change when there is a hurricane that is so devastating, the name is retired and another hurricane name replaces it. As there were no significant hurricanes in 2006, the 2012 hurricane name list is the same as the 2006 hurricane name list. 2012 Hurricane Names AlbertoBerylChrisDebbyErnestoFlorenceGordonHeleneIsaacJoyceKirkLeslieMichaelNadineOscarPattyRafaelSandyTonyValerieWilliam Join Me on Facebook | Follow Me on Twitter mrgeog

Operations management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Operations management - Essay Example They all convert inputs in order to provide outputs which are required by the customer.† The resources that go into an operating system include materials (physical items that are consumed), machines (physical items that are used), and labor (people who provide or contribute to the operation of a system). The transformation process is one that adds value to the goods or services that are offered by a business. Wild (2002, pg. 6) says that operations management â€Å"is concerned with the design and the operation of systems for manufacture, transport, supply, or service.† The activities you would expect to find in an operating system include manufacturing, which consists of process, match, batch, and jobbing (where something is physically created); transporting (where something is moved from where it was created to a different place); supply (where ownership is changed), and service (where someone or something is accommodated). An operating system is, â€Å"a reflection of the purpose it serves for its customer, i.e., the utility of its output to the customer (Wild, 2002, pg. 4). The external influences of the design of any system can necessarily vary. Examples of these include money, utilities, the external marketplace, the economy, the weather, disastrous situations, the state of the company, stakeholder opinions and actions, the availability of materials, the availability of machines, the availability of labor, the labor market, the availability of proper facilities, the demand for the products or services that are being offered, and the availability of transportation for goods that have been manufactured. 2. A company with poor productivity & customer service record wishes to improve throughput, reduce operating expenses and inventories by installing better process technology. What would you recommend and why? Improving throughput, reducing operating expenses and inventories will take quite a bit of organization on the part of the company. In

Ace records Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ace records - Essay Example duties in your new stations, you will be allocated a sum of three hundred dollars to enable you buy some of the things that you may find necessary for your operations. With this money, you can buy items such as personal clocks, carpets to make the office welcome and some source of entertainment like a radio to keep you company. The organization through this transformation, will intrinsically make us comfortable while we carry out our duties. This new environment will also allow for privacy given that everyone will operate in his or her own office. Extrinsically, the firm will attract more customers which will generate more income. I know some obstacles such as competition from other well-doing companies will arise but we shall put so much effort as possible. Competition is necessary in a company because it develops hard work in all business firms (Silverstein, 2007). I wish you all the best in your undertakings hoping that you will now dedicate yourselves to make this record group become one of the best in this region and beyond. All of us will be glad when in the next few years, we relocate to a much better and bigger station to make our performance even

To what extent have external forces like the Leapfrog Group influenced Assignment

To what extent have external forces like the Leapfrog Group influenced change in the healthcare environment - Assignment Example This essay discusses that the healthcare sector has over the time undergone immense changes, characterized by improved healthcare systems that aid access and service delivery. These changes have been triggered by various sources, including but not limited to individuals, groups of people, government healthcare evaluators and the society at large. On a more specific ground, external forces have had their contribution to the changes observed in the healthcare environment. One of the identifiable external forces that have influenced change in the healthcare environment is the Leapfrog Group and related external factors. Changes in the healthcare sector have been tailored towards making healthcare accessible and affordable. On the same note, aspects of effective and efficient service delivery systems have been advocated for, formulated and implemented. This has led to the realization of healthcare services that by greater margin meet their primary purposes, among them promoting and uphol ding good health to the larger society. These external factors have been the driving force of change in the healthcare sector of the country. While the government has crucial concerns about healthcare issues, triggering change from within the system has been observed to be slow and inefficient over time. With the presence of Leapfrog Group among other external forces in the healthcare environment, quick, efficient and effective changes in healthcare have been realized. Specifically, evidence-based initiatives have been successfully introduced. On the same note, modern technology-based physician order entries, hospital referrals and ICU staffing has been enhanced and improved through external forces advocacy (Stead &Herbert, 2009). Your sister is entering into the hospital for elective surgery. She asks you how to determine she is safe while in the hospital. What do you tell her and why. Patient’s safety in any hospital is setting is fundamentally defined by patient rights. A patient that knows his or her rights is bound to feel safer in the hands of the caregiver. The most basic point to consider is consent to treatment, and surgery on a more specific ground as it relates to this question. Feeling safe while in the hospital first begins with the patient and then the caregiver’s context comes in. This is because, in order to begin any healthcare procedure, the patient must be willing to undertake the required actions that pertain to the procedure of treatment. This is the first step to determine that the patient is safe while in the hospital. Effectiveness and quality of care is another factor combination that determines how safe a patient is. The two are determined by a number of factors that the patient herself should actively consider in order to create a safe hospital environment for her and the caregiver during treatment, and this in case elective surgery. Speaking up when an unusual scenario arises is crucial to the patient’s safety i n the hospital. The patient should observe the practices of the caregiver so that practices or actions are tailored towards promoting the patient’s welfare. Attention should be paid in the setting up of the elective surgery procedure, so that all required materials and surgical tools are well in place before hand. The caregivers responsible for the elective surgery procedure should give the patient sufficient information about the procedure so that the patient is well informed of what is expected of her. Other safety related issues to check for are the medication procedure, standard of the healthcare facility in the light of Joint Commission’s Standard and patient participation allowed by the caregivers. This information is relevant to the patient since every patient is entitled to quality and safe healthcare. What are some of the downfalls of obtaining

Waste en P3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Waste en P3 - Essay Example To get the percentage amount of time used to produce the waste, it is calculated by dividing the amount of time not spent on anything by the total amount of time available all day: (Robbins 2005). To get the amount of time spent in value addition, we get the total time the student used actively doing something from the time he wakes up to the time he prepares for bed. The total time used actively is 210 minutes, while the total available time is 960 minutes. The percentage is therefore calculated by dividing the amount of time spent actively by the total available time: (Robbins 2005). It is quite evident from the calculations that the amount of waste produced is higher than the amount of value added. It is therefore important for the student to reduce the amount of waste produced; he should engage himself in some active activities such as football, cycling, reading or some exercise that will keep him fit physically and mentally active. This will increase his value addition (Robbins

Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Business Law - Essay Example When you buy a pair of shoes, you're paying money to own the product, plain and simple. But under UCITA, what you'd be paying for when you purchase software wouldn't be the program itself, merely a license to use it. That's a subtle difference, but a significant one. Differences in selling a product and licensing the product depend on the product itself. McAllister cites additional examples of the license screen when purchasing software online: â€Å"You're told to read them, and then click ‘I Agree,’ before you're allowed to complete the installation.† While not all consumers read this â€Å"fine print† page, McAllister advises everyone should â€Å"because the way the software industry would have it, those screens of text are legally binding contracts.† Many of the provisions in the Uniform Computer Information Transactions Act were first proposed as a modification to Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code. Why did the drafters decide to propose it as a separate and distinct uniform act? Because of the growing online commerce actions, the â€Å"powers that be† in the U.S. government felt there needed to be a more clear-cut law for such commercial acts. The wording of Article 2, Congress felt, was not sufficient to cover the needs of the buyer and seller. Furthermore, amending Article 2 (originally intended to be Article 2B) was viewed as ineffective for such growing electronic businesses. Therefore, the onset of the UCITA gave both sides of the transaction a clear picture of what is legally expected.

Waste en P3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Waste en P3 - Essay Example To get the percentage amount of time used to produce the waste, it is calculated by dividing the amount of time not spent on anything by the total amount of time available all day: (Robbins 2005). To get the amount of time spent in value addition, we get the total time the student used actively doing something from the time he wakes up to the time he prepares for bed. The total time used actively is 210 minutes, while the total available time is 960 minutes. The percentage is therefore calculated by dividing the amount of time spent actively by the total available time: (Robbins 2005). It is quite evident from the calculations that the amount of waste produced is higher than the amount of value added. It is therefore important for the student to reduce the amount of waste produced; he should engage himself in some active activities such as football, cycling, reading or some exercise that will keep him fit physically and mentally active. This will increase his value addition (Robbins

Development and Implementation of Direct and Internet Marketing Essay

Development and Implementation of Direct and Internet Marketing Strategy in Nokia - Essay Example Similarly, many companies have embraced the use of direct marketing to lure customers into buying and remaining loyal to the company’s products. Direct marketing strategy is adopted to ensure the success of the marketing campaign. It involves companies approaching the consumers with their products and survives with the aim of meeting their goals by influencing an action through buying, ordering, requesting more information as well as visiting the company website (Roberts, 1999:18). Internet marketing strategy involves the use of internet to attract people or to give more information about the company’s products through directing them to the company website, increasing customers to the organization as well as branding the organization with its products (Clarke, 2005:172). Over the past years, Nokia has been on the leading end in the development and implementation of direct and internet marketing strategy which has promoted its growth in terms of product penetration and a cquisition of the market share. Similarly, this marketing strategy and ensured the company grows its revenue as it keeps on launching new products to counter its competitors. This research paper will outline how Nokia develops and implements direct and internet marketing strategy as it gives the achievements and limitations of this marketing strategy. ... Since its establishment, the company has been on steady growth as it operates in more than 120 nations across the world with employees above 100,000. Nokia has annual revenues of 30 billion euro which has placed it second mobile phone maker after Samsung as at 2012. The company commands the mobile phone industry with its current share marked at 23%. Despite the steady growth that the company has enjoyed over the years, its market share has not remained stable from last year due to developments and entry of smart phones by other agencies. The introduction of iPhone which runs Google android operating system has systematically contributed to the declining market share of the corporation. However, the company is working on strategy to ensure it counterattack the new agencies by partnering with Microsoft to ensure all Nokia smart phones are incorporated with Microsoft window as their operating system. Besides this, Nokia has elaborated ways of capturing certain markets as it develops pro ducts which meets the demands of certain age group of the society (Mangan, 2012). Their marketing strategy is very essential in ensuring they reap from the untapped markets both online and direct. Frameworks and Approaches to Direct and Internet Marketing Nokia has been on the forefront towards direct and internet marketing since competition in the mobile telecommunication industry is flooded with the entries of new products as well as new agencies. This has pushed the company to venture into direct marketing at ensuring they meet their target population as well as consumers towards realizing the existence of the company products and services. Nokia have embraced the use of direct marketing

The Long Term Effects of Child Sexual Abuse Essay Example for Free

The Long Term Effects of Child Sexual Abuse Essay Abstract Childhood sexual abuse is a serious concern that has been associated with long term effects amongst survivors. Using secondary data, this qualitative piece of research explores the long term effects of child sexual abuse in later adult life. The purpose for this study is to create awareness to professionals that sexual abuse effects continue long after the abuse stops thus, sufficient knowledge on the characteristics of the abuse. The long term effects focuses on three developmental domains; emotional social and behavioural. The emotional aspect looks at depression, feelings of guilt and anxiety. The social aspect focuses on relationships and intimacy, and the behavioural aspect will discuss issues self-destructive behaviours. Results from the research highlight that the long term effects are not consistent across the three domains. Thus, child sexual abuse is viewed as a risk factor, as opposed to an actual cause to the effects. Nevertheless, knowledge on the long term effects is imperative, to provide appropriate support and services. Research recommendations are discussed. Acknowledgments The writing of this dissertation has been one of my biggest challenges thus far; as emotional as it was, I am pleased that I decided to follow through with my chosen topic. I have learnt so much in the process, both academically and personally. This dissertation would not have been possible without the support and guidance of several individuals. First and foremost, I would like to give thanks to God for providing me with the strength and courage to undergo such a huge challenge. I would like to say a special thank you to my beloved family and friends who have given me their support and understanding over the past five months. I am really grateful to be blessed with such wonderful people, may God bless you all. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my dissertation tutor, Tricia Ayre. Thank you for your invaluable assistance from the beginning to the end. Your support has meant a lot and kept me on the right tracks. Thanks. Thanks to my manager and colleagues at my final year placement who also showed me a generous amount of support. A great effort has been put into enabling children to disclose their abuse, interventions and laws to protect survivors from such abuse. However, how the abuse effects the survivors has received comparatively little attention, (Nelson and Hampson 2008). Research has documented that survivors are more prone to suffer from physical, social emotional, cognitive and behavioural problems than non survivors, (Piper 2008, Nelson and Hampson 2008, Sanderson 2002). This is vital knowledge; as such effects are likely to have an impact on the survivor’s well-being. The aim of the research is to explore the long term effects of CSA in three developmental domains; Social, Emotional and Behavioural. The three domains are associated with The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families, (Department of Health 2012). Each domain plays a vital role in the developmental needs of a child, interruptions in one or more of the domains can lead to a child not meeting their full potential, (Department for Education and Skills 2004). The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families, highlights the importance of these specific developmental domains in order for a child to achieve, it is for this reason why I have chosen to explore these areas. The emotional aspect will discuss depression, feelings of guilt and anxiety. The social aspect will focus on relationships and intimacy, and finally the behavioural aspect will discuss issues self-destructive behaviours. CSA can leave survivors with both short and long term effects. This view is supported by Ferguson (1997), ‘as well as the immediate effects of such abuse seen in childhood, findings from research have reported how the impact of CSA can affect the lives of adult survivors. ’ â€Å"Sexual abuse is a traumatic and damaging experience which can affect a child’s capacity for trust, intimacy, mental health and emotional development and ability to achieve both educationally and socially†,( London Child Protection Committee 2005). As a result of the damage caused, it is likely for survivors to come into contact with professionals and services to address issues they may be undergoing. However, not all victims will disclose that they are survivors of CSA due to shame and embarrassment. In some cases, the individuals may not be aware that their present issues are related to their past abuse therefore will not feel the need to make the professional aware. Only 27 per cent of abused women attending general practices disclosed childhood abuse to their doctors, (Mammen and Olsen 1996). Therefore, it is important for professionals to have sufficient knowledge of the long term effects of CSA, as unknowingly may well be working with survivors. Long term effects of CSA can interfere with survivor’s mental health and well being, for these reasons social workers are likely to work with such service users, empowering them to reach their full potential. Thus it is imperative that social workers are aware of and familiar with the symptoms and long term effects associated with childhood sexual abuse, to gain a better understanding of how to support such service users, (Hall and Hall 2011). I have taken an interest in this subject for a number, as whilst undergoing my social work placement in a women’s prison, I worked with offenders with drug and alcohol misuse. A number of women disclosed that as a child, they had experienced a form of sexual abuse as a child. Anecdotally, many of the women used substances to control their emotions or repress the painful memories from their childhood. Research findings from Nesse (1994) states that drugs artificially induces pleasure or blocks normal suffering and are routinely used to block defences; such as pain and anxiety. Substance misuse can lead the individual to experience issues in areas such as social, emotional, and behavioural, (National Institute on Drug Abuse 2004). Without the prisoner disclosing their past abuse, or the professional not being aware of the long term effects caused by CSA, the effects of the abuse can go unnoticed. Consequently issues surrounding their drug misuse are addressed however; the underlying problem of CSA still remains. As a newly qualified social worker, it is important that I am aware of both the short and long term effects of CSA, as there is a likelihood of meeting with survivors in my work environment. Being able to identify the effects, would allow me to develop a more effective way of addressing the service users immediate needs, making sure they are aware of the supportive services available in the community. Therefore conducting this piece of research would have a positive contribution towards my professional development, as I would be equipped with sufficient knowledge and understanding, prior going into practice. Conducting research into this field I believe will also have a positive impact on my personal development, as I am a survivor of CSA. Although it is important for professionals working with survivors to be aware of the effects, it is equally important for the survivors themselves to be aware that the effects can continue long after the abuse stops. Through considerable media attention public awareness on CSA has increased throughout the years, though CSA is not a recent phenomenon. CSA is a social problem that has been of concern during earlier historical periods, (Conte 1994). According to Jeffery (2006), prior to the 1960’s there was very little mention of CSA. CSA and incest was seen as a taboo, (La Fontaine 1988). As this taboo was often shared by the victim, family and professional the problem remained widely unrecognised, (Bentovim et al 2009). In 1908 the Incest Act was established and incest became illegal. However, this era was still seen as ‘The time of silence’, as it was literally impossible to think about disclosing or debating sexual abuse, such acts were not accepted and viewed as forbidden. (Carlsson 2009). The Children Act in 1948 introduced child care departments to be set up in local authorities. Under the 1948 Children Act, it became the duty of a local authority to receive the child into care in cases of abuse or neglect, (Spicker 2007). In the 1940’s there was an interest in CSA by social scientists; large scale studies of sexual practices were conducted, these were known as the Kinsey studies. Findings showed that a number of participants had a sexual experience as a child with an adult, (Jeffery 2006). Even in the light of these and other studies, there remained widespread public and professional denial that CSA took place, Jeffery (2006). However this could be explained, â€Å"Before the 1970’s the justice system was not receptive to CSA: children viewed as presumptively unreliable; hard to prove abuse; general climate of disbelief; little or no training for police or prosecutors on how to investigate, recognize, and prove child abuse†, (Bala 2006). The growth of the woman’s movement was a turning point for CSA; the role of women in society had shifted, women were now encouraged to speak out about their experiences, as supposed to being ashamed and having to suppress feelings. Sanderson (2002) argued that from this exchange of information and the sharing of experiences it became evident that CSA was a common rather than an isolated experience which many women had experienced. In the 1980’s there was an increase in awareness and concern about sexual abuse of children, this was displayed in the increase of reported incidents of child abuse. Professionals were now playing a more active role in protecting children from such abuse; however this was later criticised, as they were seen as acting too quickly in removing children from their parents. In 1987, over 100 children were removed from their families on emergency Place of Safety Orders on the basis of a diagnosis of sexual abuse made by two paediatricians at a hospital in Middlesbrough, (Munro 2007, p. 21). Following the media outcry these events led to a public inquiry, famously known as The Cleveland inquiry. The message from the inquiry was that professionals needed to take a more legalistic approach to collecting evidence, (Munro 2007, p. 21) Two years later, The Children’s Act 1989 was passed, although it was not implemented until 1990. The Children Act 1989 gave every child the right to protection from abuse and exploitation and the right to inquiries to safeguard their welfare, (Batty 2005). The introduction of the Children’s Act, allowed professionals to intervene in cases they suspected a child was likely to suffer from significant harm. From the 1990’s a number of laws and legislations were put in place to prevent and detect cases of CSA, and prosecute abusers. The Protection of Children’s Act was passed in 1999; it aimed to prevent paedophiles from working with Children, (Batty 2005). In 2003, The Sexual Offences Act was passed; it criminalises all sexual activity with a child under the age of 16, (The Crown Prosecution service 2012). In addition to the increase of laws introduced, CSA has triggered a major reaction in the media; as a result CSA has received increasing public attention, (Ferguson 1997). Jeffery (2006) suggested that the increase in reported incidents of CSA over the years is related to a better understanding of the signs and symptoms of abuse and better inter-agency working. Although there has been an increase in the number of reported incidents, CSA is still largely hidden and unreported, so it is difficult to get an accurate picture of the extent of different forms of abuse, (London Child Protection Committee 2005). Pereda et al (2009) reviewed 65 studies from 22 different countries and concluded that the global prevalence of CSA is estimated at 19. 7 per cent for females and 7. 9 per cent for men. The highest prevalence rate of CSA geographically was found in Africa with 34. 4 per cent. This was mainly due to the high rate of abuse in South Africa. South Africa has many migrant workers; due to lack of job opportunities in their vicinity parents left their children alone for weeks to months with relatives or minders, while they travelled to distant places. This exposed the children to all sorts of abuse, especially sexual abuse, (Madu and Peltzer 2000). On the other hand, Europe displayed the lowest prevalence rate with 9. 2 per cent. However, even the lowest prevalence rate includes a large number of victims who need to be taken into account, (Wihbey 2011). Chapter Two 2. 0Methodology This dissertation was conducted to explore and critically examine the current literature on the long term effects of CSA, focusing on three specific domains; social, emotional and behavioural. To begin with, I attended tutorials that primarily focused on how to write and structure a dissertation. With the knowledge gained I was able to compose my first stage proposal form, at this point I identified my dissertation topic, title, rationale and aim. I was then allocated a supervisor; through one to one meetings and emails, I sought advice and guidance on the best approach that suited my dissertation topic. Targets and deadlines were also agreed upon as time management was essential. To aid my literature search I also sought advice from the librarian at the University of West London. All Material used for this dissertation solely relied upon secondary data sources. Data was gathered from the University of West London and The British library. Search engines such as Google and Yahoo were used to search web resources. I initially began by using the phrase ‘Long term effects of CSA’; however the results produced were broad, I decided to narrow my results by searching for the three domains individually, e. g. ‘Behavioural effects of CSA in adulthood’. I then read through the results provided, those that were significant to my research I printed off. Reading the literature thoroughly, I highlighted relevant points, using different colour highlighters for each domain. Findings from this dissertation were presented using qualitative research. As CSA is a sensitive topic, it was important that the approach used suited the content of the dissertation. Qualitative research aims to describe and explain relationships, where quantitative research predicts casual relationships, (Family health international 2011). Presenting the data using qualitative research allowed me to explore the subject in great detail. Family health international (2011) states that qualitative research provides information about the ‘human’ side of an issue; giving the nature of the dissertation I believed this design was the most appropriate. When athering information for the literature review, I primarily focused on literature published in the United Kingdom. However, the research presented was insufficient; I therefore furthered my search to various countries. For this reason, this study will not be based solely in the United Kingdom. The dissertation aimed to reflect both females and males experience of CSA. However, a considerable amount of literature gathered had used female participants. As Jehu (1991 cited in Forensic Psychology Practice 1999) highlighted, in regards to research and treatment literature, male survivors have been neglected. Jehu (1991 cited in Forensic Psychology Practice 1999) further explained, ‘ from a cultural perspective, there appears to be some ‘societal reluctance’ to recognise boys as victims of abuse rather than willing participants in sexual encounters’. As mainly female participants were used, it could be argued that the research is not a representative sample of CSA survivors, this could possibly interfere with the study’s validity. Validity is used to determine whether research measures what it intended to measure and to approximate the truthfulness of the results, (Tariq 2009). It is also possible that the gender specific sample could generate significant bias. As I am a survivor of CSA, it is important to acknowledge that my past experiences are likely to affect how I interpret findings gathered from the research. This could cause possible issues surrounding bias, again affecting the validity of the dissertation. Although material used for this research was based on secondary data sources, if I was to conduct primary research on my chosen topic, a number of ethical issues would have to be taken into consideration, due to the complex and sensitive nature of the subject. Firstly, I would need to ensure that full consent is gained from all participants as this protects the individuals from harm and protects the researchers from having their project deemed invalid or unethical, ( Helping Psychology 2009). It is also important, that I inform participants that they have the right to withdraw from the study at any time. Confidentially is another ethical issue that needs to be implemented when carrying out primary research. ‘The assurance of confidentiality carries with it the implication that non-researchers cannot discover the respondents identity’, (Jamison 2007). In this circumstance, confidentially is necessary as it is possible survivors taking part have not disclosed their abuse. Holmes (2004, p. 120) stated; ensuring that transcripts do not include participant’s names was a way to protect participant’s confidentiality. According to Ghate and Spencer (1995, p. 79), the most important concern when undertaking such research is the after effects of the interview on the survivors, as it may trigger and painful memories. Thus it is essential that researchers carefully balance ethical principles, so that collection of data can occur without harm to participants. Ghate and Spencer (1995, p. 79) suggested that post interviewing would be useful for participants who might have found the interview stressful. Chapter Three 3. 0Literature Review According to Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, (2012) Article 1 the definition of a child is â€Å"every human being below the age of eighteen years unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. † Sexual abuse can be defined as an umbrella term as existing definitions of childhood sexual abuse are diverse and cover a wide range of factors. Sexual abuse can occur in several forms, these include intercourse, attempted intercourse, oral genital contact, fondling of genitals directly or through clothing, exhibitionism or exposing children to adult sexual activity or pornography, (Putnam 2003). For the purpose of this research, the following definition will be used; ‘CSA is the involvement of a child in sexual activity that he or she does not fully comprehend, is unable to give informed consent or for which the child is not developmentally prepared and cannot give consent,’ (World Health Organisation 1999). . 1Factors contributing to the impact of CSA CSA effects can vary from no apparent effects to very severe ones, such as depression and self-injurious behaviours. The impact CSA can have on an individual can differ according to a multiple of factors. Cited in Piper (2008, Ullman 2003) is in support of this view, he concluded that the degree of impact CSA has on a person varies, studies demonstrated the follow ing influencing factors; age of the child abuse, duration of the abuse, frequency of the abuse, relationship with the offender, severity of the ssault and reactions to disclosure. A number of researchers have established that the age at the onset of abuse is an important factor that can influence the impact of CSA; however researchers share contradicting views in regards to what age the abuse has the most impact on the survivor. Corby (1993 p. 123) supports the view that both the short and long term consequences of sexual abuse are less harmful in the younger children, because of the lack of awareness of the social stigma attached to sexual abuse. Gomes-Schwartz (1990 p. 07) found that their 7 to 13 years age group experienced more adverse reaction than did children in their 4 to 6 years. In contrast, Living Well (2010) suggested earlier onset is linked to greater impact. Baker and Duncan (1985) found that majority of women reporting most perceived ill-effects were abused before the age of 10. Cited in Corby (1993 p. 123, Beitchman et al 1991) raised an important argument; they suggested that age needs to be considered in conjunction with other variables. Studies have found a link between the duration of the abuse and the trauma of CSA. Barriere (2005 cited in Sanderson 2006) reported an ongoing sexual relationship with repeated contacts is generally more traumatic and usually produces more sexual abuse effects than a single contact. Browne and Finkelhor (1986 ) reviewed 11 studies and found that six confirmed the longer the duration of the abuse went on, the more traumatic was the effect on the victim. However, it must be addressed that there are many instances of one –off abuses that can have a traumatic effect on victims; this could be the case if the abuse is linked with violence, (Corby 1993, p. 24). If the abused knows their abuser, it is said that the impact of the abuse is much greater, than being abused by an unfamiliar person. Barriere (2005, cited in Sanderson 2006) supports this view as she states the closer the emotional relationship, the greater the emotional trauma. A reason for the increased trauma could possibly be due to betrayal of trust. CSA can occur in multiple forms, from asking or pres suring a child to engage in sexual activities to behaviour involving penetration. The type of sexual activity the victim is exposed to can influence the impact of the abuse. Groth (1982, p. 129-144. ) has differentiated between the child rapist, who uses force, power, and threats in the sexual abuse, and the abusers who takes the more slow approach and often with considerable affection. The effects on the child will be different. Nevertheless, it is important to stress the effects of any type of sexual abuse can cause considerable damage to the individual, (MacFarlane et al 1986, p. 10). When a child discloses their sexual abuse, it is important to remember the reaction can contribute to how the child will cope from their sexual abuse experience, (Allnock 2010). Conte and Schuerman (1987) found that a supportive response was an important factor in reducing the extent of long term problems following sexual abuse. 3. 2Reasons for limited research Over the past years CSA has received much public attention however, majority of research has focused on the victims as children; comparatively little work has been published on the long term consequences, (Cahill et al 1991). CSA researchers are faced with a number of challenges. The definition of CSA is a reason to why there is lack of research. As there is no universal definition researcher’s definitions can differ, and as a result depending on the definition used in the study findings can vary. The lack of research in the long term effects of CSA is also due to the difficulties in establishing casual connections between the abuse and the later affects years after the abuse. The greater the gap between the abuse event and the later behaviour the less chance there is of casually linking the two because of the existence of more intervening variables†, (Corby, 1993 p107). Effects found in survivors are not always exclusive to the childhood sexual abuse and may reflect other underlying issues, (Sanderson 2002, p. 54). Conducting studies in sensitive areas such as CSA has been proven to be difficult; therefore research in such fields may be limited. Willows (2009, p. 7) found â€Å"People who have experienced abuse in childhood may be understandably reluctant to share their experiences, especially in a research setting†. A study conducted on the ethical issues in research on sensitive topics noted that, participants who had experienced child abuse were more likely to report distress after participating in research, due to remembering the past. However, researchers also found that these participants were more likely to report that participation was helpful, (Decker et al 2011). According to Sanderson (2002, p. 5) another difficulty in assessing the long term effects of childhood sexual abuse, is that through the repression of the trauma, or dissociation, survivors of such abuse may possibly not consciously remember the abuse experience. Therefore findings gathered from research could be effected, interfering with the validly and reliability of the study. Despite the difficulties in undertaking research in the long term con sequences of CSA, a number of authors have made positive contributions to such a high profile topic, (Briere and Elliot 1994, Sanderson 2002, Hall and Hall 2011). Research has documented that CSA survivors are more prone to suffer from social, emotional and behavioural problems than non survivors; difficulties include, however are not limited to, anxiety depression, guilt, difficulty with interpersonal relationships, self-destructive behaviours and lowered self-esteem, (Piper 2008). It is important to be mindful that the effects and degree of such abuse varies from person to person. 3. 3Emotional There have been numerous studies examining the association between a history of CSA and emotional distress, (Sanderson 2002, Beitchman et al 1992, Mullen and Fleming 1999). Emotional effects most commonly experienced by survivors of CSA focus on depression, problems of guilt, low self-esteem and anxiety†, Sanderson (2002 p. 57). Amongst the category of emotional distress, depression has been found to be the most commonly reported symptom among survivors, and empirical findings support this view, (Cahill et al 1991). World Health Organisation (20 12) provides a definition of depression; â€Å"Depression is a common mental disorder that presents with depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure, feelings of guilt or low self-worth, disturbed sleep or appetite, low energy, and poor concentration†. Hall and Hall (2011) documented that survivors may have difficulty in externalizing the abuse, thus thinking negatively about themselves. Ratican (1992) furthered this view by describing the symptoms of survivors’ depression to feeling down, having suicidal ideation, disturbed sleeping and eating patterns. The onset of depression has been associated with CSA in numerous studies, cited in Briere and Elliott (1994). Lanktree et al (1991) reported that adults with a history of CSA may have as much as four-time greater chance of developing depression than do individuals with no such abuse history. Beitchman et al (1992) agrees that depression is a significant issue to survivors of CSA. Reviewing eight studies they were able to identify six of the eight identified association between CSA and depression. Similarly, Briere and Runtz (1985, cited in Cahill et al 1991) found a positive correlation, in their survey of undergraduate women, those who had been sexually abused as a child reported experiencing more depressive symptoms in the preceding 12 months compared to non-abused participants. Although there is thorough research to support the correlation between CSA and depression, a small percentage of researchers failed to find a significant difference. Herman’s (1981 p. 56) found that the difference between participants from abused backgrounds and those from non-abused backgrounds proved to be statistically non-significant. His study demonstrated that 60 per cent of abused survivors reported depression, in relation to 55 per cent of the control group. In some cases, no connection was found; Fromuth (1986) undertook research and no relationship were found between depression and CSA survivors. However, her sample consisted of women with the average age of 19. 4 years, whereas majority of the other studies involved older participants. This could possibly indicate that the onset of depression is more likely to develop in later adult life. Having analysed my literature, low self-esteem was another long term effect commonly identified in CSA survivors. Robson (1988) defined self-esteem as â€Å"the sense of contentment and self-acceptance that stems from a person’s appraisal of his/her own worth, significance, attractiveness, competence and ability to satisfy aspirations†. Studies have implicated CSA in lowering self-esteem in adults, (Mullen and Fleming 1999, Herman and Hirchman 1981,). Bagley and Ramsay (1986) documented a low self-esteem rate of 19 per cent with participants from a sexual abuse background in comparison to 5 per cent among the control group. Herman and Hirchman (1981 cited in Cahill 1991) study, they found that 60 per cent of abused victims reported ‘predominantly negative self-image’ in relation to 10 per cent of their control group. Further evidence to support lowered self- esteem in sexually abused survivors is displayed in Jehu et al study (1985 cited in Sanderson 2002); using the Battle Self Esteem Questionnaire, they reported that 86 per cent of sexually abused women generated scores indicating low self-esteem. Roman’s et al (1996 cited in Mullen and Fleming 1999) agrees that low self- esteem is a significant issue to survivors of sexual abuse. The study showed a clear relationship between the two factors. From their findings, they noted that the impact of the abuse contributed to participant’s level of self- esteem. Those who reported the more intrusive forms of abuse, such as penetration, experienced lower levels of self-esteem. CSA is, by nature, threatening and disruptive, and may interfere with the survivor’s sense of security; therefore it is likely that victims of such maltreatment are prone to chronic feelings of anxiety, (Briere and Elliot1994). Sedney and Brook (1984) found from their college sample, 59 per cent of those participants who had history of sexual abuse suffered from anxiety and nervousness in contrast with 29 per cent of those who had no history of abuse. Briere and Elliot (1994) conducted further research and found that sexually abused adults became anxious in intimate or close relationships or frightened when interacting with authority figures, due to being exposed to sexual acts throu gh manipulation, coercion or power tactics upon a child who is not developmentally capable of understanding or consenting to such acts, (Walding 2002). It has been shown that survivors of CSA frequently take personal responsibility for the abuse; this often translates into feelings of guilt, (Hall and Hall 2011). MacMillan Dictionary (2012) defines guilt as â€Å"a feeling of being ashamed and sorry because you have done something wrong†. Hall and Hall (2011) went on to report that survivors often blame themselves and internalize negative messages about themselves. Tsai and Wanger (1978) reported the feeling of guilt could be accounted for by three important factors; due to sexual abuse being a secret act, the abused feels such acts is shameful therefore should not be disclosed to others. Secondly if during the abuse, if the abused experiences any physical or sexual pleasure, this causes them to feel guilty. The third factor is that the abused may feel guilty for not stopping the abuser by not disclosing the abuse and in some way ‘allowed’ it to continue. Jehu et al (1985) provides clinical evidence to reflect Tsai and Wanger (1978) theory. In their study 82 per cent of survivors blamed themselves for the abuse; this was mainly down to their feeling of guilt. 3. 4Emotional Discussion Depression, anxiety, low self-esteem and guilt were identified as the emotional long term effects most commonly displayed in CSA survivors. The four effects highlighted are all issues of identity, confidence and self-worth. In addition to sexual abuse, it is likely the survivor may have undergone emotional abuse from the abuser. This can also contribute to the survivor’s lack of identity and confidence, (Campling 1993). Mollon (2005, cited in Sanderson 2006) states ‘an individual’s cohesive sense of self and core identity is like the individual’s ‘psychological clothes’, without which the individual is naked, exposed and vulnerable’. As impaired sense of self can lead to vulnerability, reoccurrence of abuse is possible thus the adult may come into contact with a social worker for example, rape or domestic violence. This would suggest that working with CSA survivors, social workers would not only need to have understanding of their signs and symptoms but the manner in which they are going to work with them. Social workers would need to carefully consider the most appropriate intervention when working with such service users as it is likely, survivors would be vulnerable. It is important for professionals not to impose their own views, but to empower survivors to define and build on their own sense of self, that is not dependent on external definitions, (Sanderson 2006). Depression and anxiety disorders are both mental health issues. This would need to be considered by the professional involved in the context of the intervention, as well as risk and safeguarding concerns. 3. 5Social The long-term effects of CSA may also extend beyond victims themselves to impact survivors’ interpersonal relations with significant individuals in their lives, (Dilillo 2001). Research and clinical observations have long suggested that CSA is associated with both initial and long term alterations in social functioning†, (Briere and Elliot 1994). Hall and Hall (2011) reported that symptoms correlated with childhood sexual abuse may hinder the development and growth of relationships therefore survivors may experience a variety of interpersonal effects. Mullen a nd Fleming (1999) state in circumstances when the survivors shared a close relationship with the abusers there impac t is likely to be more profound. Isolation is a social long term effect that survivors of CSA may suffer from. â€Å"It has been observed that sexually abused children tend to be less socially competent and more socially withdrawn than no abused children†, (Briere and Elliot 1994). This is echoed in Courtois (1979) study, findings showed that 73 per cent of sexually abused survivors expressed feelings of isolation and feelings of being different from others. Lew (1988 p. 54) reported that isolation in some cases was something that was learnt from the survivor’s hildhood experience. As a way of keeping the abuse a secret, isolation was often reinforced by the abuser. The lack of ability to trust in relationships has been identified in literature, and is considered a major and significant problem. Mullen and Fleming (1999) provided an explanation into why this might be the case, they stated fears of trust or establishing interpersonal boundaries could stem from the breach of trust and the exploration of vulnerability experienced in the abuse. From the findings gathered in her research, Alexander (1992) stated that the history of CSA was found to be related to insecure and disorganised attachments in adult life. Sanderson (2002, p63) applied the view that the experience of CSA created a fear of intimacy amongst survivors. As a direct response there is a constant search for numerous transient relationships, in preference to stable and constant relationships. Jehu et al (1985) research reflects the work of Sanderson, 77 per cent of their survivors reported that it was ‘dangerous to get close to anyone because they always betray, exploit or hurt you’. A small amount of research has demonstrated that adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse experience greater parental challenges than mothers with no history of abuse, (Dilillo 2001). Cohen (1995) conducted numerous investigations and found differences between abused and non-abused mothers in relation to their parenting skills. Women who had been abused performed less well on the all seven scales on the Parenting Skills Inventory, particularly in areas that assed role support, communication and role image. Van Scoyk et al (1991) provided an explanation into why previously abused parents lack particular parenting skills. They reported these individuals may possibly have inadequate opportunity to observe and learn from healthy, effective parenting models. However, Coleman and Widom (2004 cited in Brick 2005) disagreed with literature found and stated a history of CSA does not necessarily entail that one will have interpersonal dysfunction. In their study, they found amongst those who were abused about 40 per cent of females and 60 per cent of males were in long term relationships. In addition 90 per cent of participants did not commit infidelity with multiple partners. 3. 6Social Discussion Social workers must strive to establish and maintain the trust and confidence of service users, (General Social Care Council, 2012). Research into the long term social effects has shown that, survivors of CSA could possibly have difficulties in building relationships. Therefore, this could have an impact on the working relationship between the survivor and social worker. Trust is an essential factor in building an effective rapport with service users, (Crowther and Cowen 2011). Given the nature of the trauma, disruptions may arise in the survivor’s sense of safety and ability to trust. For that reason, it is important that social workers are equipped with an understanding of how to build and maintain the trust of survivors, as this may differ from working with service users with no history of abuse. Effective training in this area could possibly avoid issues that may sabotage the working relationship between the social worker and survivor. Therefore, more specialist knowledge would be advantageous. Furthermore, the power dynamics of the relationship may well have an impact on the rapport between the survivor and social worker. Fear of authority could influence the survivor’s perception of social workers. As abusers of CSA are often authority figures who exert their power, survivors may learn to fear authoritative figures, (Croft 2008). The inability to grow and develop healthy relationships for some survivors could possibly raise safeguarding concerns. For example, such effect could perhaps interfere with the attachment between a parent and child, resulting to issues effecting parenting capacity. Dr John Bowlby, founder of the attachment theory believed the earliest bonds between a child and care-giver have a great impact on the child that continues throughout their life, (Cherry 2012). However, due to early experiences in their own childhood, parents may become over-protective in order to protect their child from experiencing the same traumas. Conversely in some cases, this could promote the opposite behaviour and the parent become under-protective as it is difficult to display affection and closeness. In either circumstance the child may experience difficulty in achieving and meeting their full potential, due to impaired or inadequate relationships with the parent. Social workers along with other working professionals have the statutory duty to protect children who are at risk. This is in accordance to section 47 of the Children’s Act 1989, (Northamptonshire Local Safeguarding Children Board 2012). Parenting capacity is one of the three domains for The Framework for assessment of children and families and is essential in securing the best outcomes for the child, (Parker and Bradley 2003, p. 19). Disruptive attachment can cause issues with the child’s emotional warmth, stimulation, guidance, boundaries and stability. 3. 7Behavioural According to Thompson (2012) it is possible that repressed or forgotten abuse may manifest itself in adult life by out-of-control behaviours which can lead to the abuse of self and/or others. According to research evidence, early sexual experiences often have an influence on later sexual behaviour, (Herman 1981, Randolph and Mosack 2006, Wooden 2010). Randolph and Mosack (2006) quoted â€Å"When early sexual experience is abusive, it can exert specific effects on subsequent sexual behaviours†. Findings from their research found that, survivors of CSA engaged in risky sexual behaviour at higher rates than individuals who had not experienced such abuse, (Randolph and Mosack 2006). A number of studies furthered Randolph and Mosack findings and reported that risky sexual behaviour in adults previously abused was exhibited in many forms; having many sexual partners, failing to use condoms during intercourse increasing the risk of sexually transmitted infections and having anal sex, (Batten et al, 2001, Wingood and DiClemente, 1997). Herman (1981, p. 84) research echoed these findings, within her sample of sexually abused survivors 35 per cent of the women had a ‘ repertoire of sexually styled behaviour’, it was found they behaved in such manner for attention and1 affection. Wooden, (2010) provided an explanation as to why some adults with a history of CSA may participate in risky sexual behaviour. He stated that sexual abuse could result in the abused to disregard their own humanity therefore, perform sexual acts in a more promiscuous way. Rape and Sexual abuse centre (2011) provided their account of why survivors take part in such behaviours; they stated that due to survivor’s childhood experience it was possible that they were incapable to separating sex from affection, which then leads to promiscuity or impaired arousal. Thompson (2012) also made a contribution and stated that sexual promiscuity was a way of the survivors taking control of their feelings. In contrast to the above findings, Fromuth (1983) found no significant difference between promiscuous behaviour and the previously abused women who participated in the research. Riley (2011, p. 127) stated that in some cases victims could take the opposite direction and avoid sex entirely. She stated that the abused may often refuse to take part in sexual activity to remain in control of their own body, unlike when they were abused against their will as a child. Krahe et al (1999) found that female survivors of CSA were at risk of suffering from abuse in later life. Moore and Long (2002) suggested that abuse could occur in the form of adult sexual assault, physical abuse or psychological maltreatment. They also stated that a number of factors could increase a woman’s vulnerability towards abuse; learned manipulative behaviour, beliefs and attitudes, low self-esteem and learned helplessness. Survivors of childhood sexual abuse may compulsively attach themselves to unsuitable partners, who frequently resemble their abuser, Sanderson (2002, p62). Russell (1986, p. 2) found that 65 per cent of participants from sexual abuse backgrounds were victims of subsequent or attempted rape, in comparison to 36 per cent of non-abused participants. In addition, her findings also displayed that an average of 43 per cent of women had been subjected to physical violence by husbands or partners compared with 18 per cent of the control group. Bauserman an d Davis (1996 cited in Randolph and Mosack 2006), concluded that the relationship between CSA and adult sexual behaviour may depend on whether the individuals viewed the early sexual experience in a positive or negative way. Research has highlighted another effect of childhood sexual abuse; self-destructive behavior. Van der Kolk et al (1991) quoted â€Å"childhood trauma such as sexual abuse contributes heavily to the initiation of self-destructive behaviour’†. Erdmans and Black (2008) noted the different forms of self-destructive behaviour; self-mutilation, alcohol abuse, eating disorders and in some cases suicide. Wonderlich et al (2001) believed that this behaviour is presented as a result to reduce emotional distress associated with their abuse. Hiebert-Murphy and Woytkiw, (2000) added self-destructive behaviour was a maladaptive coping strategy for managing negative- self direct feelings. The experience of being abused as a child may increase a person’s risk for alcohol-related problems as an adult, (Windom 1993). Scher ;amp; Twaite, (1999, cited in Lee et al 2008) explained survivors may turn to alcohol as a means to block out psychological pain as they dissociate from their traumatic memories. Evidence to support this view can be seen in Langeland and Hartgers (1998) study; they found a significantly higher prevalence of issues surrounding alcohol in abused women than in the non- abused women. A positive correlation was also identified in Peters (1984, cited in Sanderson 2006, P. 126) research, 17 per cent of participants subjected to sexual abuse during their childhood had symptoms of alcohol abuse, compared to 4 per cent of the control group. However, Fleming et al (1998) study displayed conflicting results. There was no relationship found between alcohol intake and a history of CSA. Fleming et al (1998) argued that, the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and the development of adult alcohol problems needed to be researched further, as there is a sufficient amount of evidence to suggest that CSA alone is not a causative factor in the development of alcohol abuse. Eating disorders is another form of self-destructive behaviour. Research indicates a possible relationship between sexual abuse and the development of an eating disorder, (Myers 2005). Nelson and Hampson (2008) suggested a significant number of survivors have issues with food for a variety of reasons; determination to exercise control over their lives, self-hatred, reactions to oral assault, self -comfort in compulsive eating and in extreme cases sometimes the eating disorder is adopted as a wish to die. Johnson et al (2002 cited in Sanci et al 2008), conducted a longitudinal study among 782 participants and found that CSA was a risk factor for eating disorders in early adulthood. Oppenheimer et al (1986) found that women with anorexia and bulimia also reported a high incidence of childhood sexual abuse. Sanci et al (2008) reported discrepant findings, as some studies found that CSA was no more prevalent in females that were not subjected to such abuse. Another form of self-destructive behaviour that could possibly manifest into adulthood as a result of CSA is self injurious behaviour (Briere and Elliot, 1994 and Mundy, 2010) Klonsky and Moyer (2008) defined self injurious behaviour as ‘the causing of intentional, direct damage to one’s body tissue without suicidal intent’. Self injurious behaviour can be displayed in many forms such as cutting, burning or bruising, (Mundy 2010). Briere and Elliot, (1994) reported in their research, that self injurious behaviour is aimed to reduce the psychic tension associated with extremely negative guilt, intense depersonalization and feelings of helplessness. Similar to CSA, self injurious behaviour is often a source of humiliation and shame and grows in secrecy, (Mundy 2010). The pleasure gained from self injurious is not so much the inflicting of physical pain, but the cessation of emotional pain, Mundy 2010). Findings to support the view that individuals from a sexually abused background are likely to conduct self injurious behaviour can found in Gibson and Crenshaw (2010) research, a sample of individuals with self injurious behaviour took part in study and it was found that, 93 per cent of participants reported a history of childhood sexual abuse. The study also identified the more severe, the longer the durati on of the abuse or the more frequent the abuse took place the greater the risk of engaging in self injurious behaviour during their adult life. Briere (1984) also provides findings to support this view; it was found during his community study that 31 per cent of survivors expressed a desire to harm themselves, in comparison to 19 per cent of the non-survivors. 3. 8Behavioural Discussion The long term behavioural effects of CSA can raise safeguarding issues as such behaviours can cause significant harm to the survivor as well as the risk of others. Social work is a profession that works with a wide range of individuals in a number of different situations and settings. Alcohol and Drugs are related to a number of issues involving social services. Goodman (2009, p. ) quoted ‘clients will bring with them multiplicity of concerns; relationship issues, financial problems, housing, risk of offending, health (physical and mental) and behaviour problems. For this reason, it is imperative that CSA knowledge is not limited to social workers in the child protection field. However, it should be extended across the board, as the lon g term effects of CSA can present themselves in different situations. Chapter Four 4. 0Discussion The primary aim of the dissertation was to gain an understanding of the long term effects of CSA in three different domains; social, emotional and behavioural. A review of research suggest that although, there is existing evidence to indicate that survivors of CSA are likely to experience lasting effects in adulthood, findings are inconsistent and further research is required. The inconsistency within the results across all domains, has led me to conclude that CSA is in fact a risk factor, rather than a sole cause of the long term effects. When reviewing the literature, a number of CSA authors were in disagreement of the association between CSA and the long term effects in the different domains. Sharland et al (1996, p. 5) states that evidence supporting the effects of child sexual abuse can not be viewed as reliable as most of the evidence has been anecdotal, or based on unrepresentative or small samples. For this reason, it is not always clear to what extent a given study has identified the unique effects of CSA, (Briere and Elliot 1994). According to Ferguson (1997) ‘a well designed and controlled study following the child victims of CSA into adulthood, would enable the effects of such abuse to be monitored and allow data on possible confounding variables to be collected’. Unfortunately not only will this be expensive but also time consuming, thus as previously discussed in the literature review it is important to note that undertaking research in sensitive topics such as CSA can be difficult, and as a result is likely to be restricted. With respect to the literature, patterns emerged in relation to the period the research was published. Majority of the CSA research was carried out in the late 1980’s and 1990’s. Although up-to-date statistics on the prevalence of CSA were referred to, current studies relating to the effects of CSA were limited. The sudden rise in research can be linked with the increased awareness and concern of CSA at the time. â€Å"†¦ it was not until the 1980’s that the existence of CSA, in particular, fully entered the public consciousness†, (Pence and Wilson 1994). The lack of recent research may lead me to believe that society still views CSA as a taboo and unpalatable. It is also possible to propose that other types of sexual abuse have diverted the attention away from CSA. For example, sexual exploitation has recently received a great deal of public attention. In a recent report Barnardos (2012) stated that, child sexual exploitation has become a major child protection issue for communities across the UK. As a result of the increase of interest in the other forms of sexual abuse, CSA has been overlooked. The leading writers in the subject appear to be John Briere and David Finkelhor. Both authors published their research between the period of 1980 and 1990. I found that whilst gathering literature for my review I commonly came across both authors, also many other authors commonly referred to their work. Briere’s focused his work on all forms of child abuse and how the abuse affects the survivor’s psychosocial functioning as an adult, (Goldstien 1992). Finkelhor is best known for his conceptual and empirical research on child sexual abuse this is reflected in his publications, (Durham 2006). The most common long term effect highlighted in the literature was depression. Research illustrates, of all the long term effects depression is the most frequently reported symptom amongst CSA survivors, (Briere and Elliot 1994, Sanderson 2002, Lanktree et al 1991). A plausible explanation to why depression is reported as the most frequent effect, can be due to the fact survivors are more likely to seek medical help for this effect in comparison to effects such as guilt or self-injurious behaviour. A number of survivors of CSA who visit their doctors are acutely distressed and depressed, (Mammen and Oisen 1996). Chapter Five 5. 0Conclusion/Recommendations The study demonstrates that the relationship between long term effects in the three domains; emotional, social, behavioural and the history of CSA abuse is inclusive. Therefore, the inconsistency of findings suggests that CSA can be viewed as a risk factor as opposed to a cause for the wide range of long term effects amongst survivors of CSA. Despite the increase in research, further research is required to enable a more in-depth understanding of the long term effects with a more representative sample of survivors. As literature gathered mainly focused on female survivors, results cannot be generalised. With the purpose of improving the quality of professional’s intervention as well as relevant strategies being developed to support survivors. Having undertaken secondary research on the long term effects of CSA, I would recommend that social workers and related practitioners not just in the child protection field but across all sectors have more adequate training in identifying survivors of CSA to ensure they can provide the appropriate care, treatment, support, and also more awareness on effectively handling disclosures. The outcome of this could possibly increase the numbers of disclosures made and may also prevent survivors of CSA suffering in silence. Personally and professionally, I have successfully gained a better understanding on the journey a number of individuals may experience as a survivor of CSA. Although as a survivor of such abuse, prior to conducting the research I was conscious of some of the effects present however, was not fully aware of the severity and the significant implications such abuse had on not only the life of the survivor, but also on other significant individuals in their lives. I believe having such knowledge will have a positive impact on both my personal and professional development as a social worker. Before undertaking the research, I was always reluctant to speak about my experience of CSA; I tended to repress my memories as a way of coping with the abuse. However, increasing my awareness on the topic I believe, has given me the confidence to feel comfortable within myself to openly disclose my past. The research has allowed me to understand that in fact, sexual abuse effects continue long after the abuse stops. I am now able to identify that many of my current issues stem from my history of abuse; as a result a sense of self-blame has been removed.

Reasons For Prison Population Increase

Reasons For Prison Population Increase Prisons all over the world are experiencing an increase in population each day. This can be blamed on the increasing rate of crime especially non violent crimes. The recent advancement in technology has led to increased crimes especially since criminals do not need to leave their houses to commit a crime. The internet has become a widely used utility for cyber crimes that just require an internet connection, as well as hacking skills. Such criminals are encouraged to commit such crimes by the fact that they do not need to hurt anybody, or murder anybody to steal. Drug offenders comprise of the biggest percent of the prison population especially in the US. According to DAmico (2013), the US houses the biggest population in its prisons compared to other nations. The growth in the population over the last 40 years can be attributed to the war on drugs. Drug prohibition leads to an increase in violent crimes through the formation of cartels and gangs. The impact of high population growth in prisons presents a rising incarceration budget in all countries. This paper will discuss the causes of population increase in prisons and outline measures that can be taken to incarceration. Increases in expected time served Increase in the time that offenders serve in prison is one of the major causes of population increase in prisons all over the world. Changes in the time served by drug offenders contribute to about of the total increase. Authorities have revised the prison terms to include longer time as an effort to deter other people from committing the crime (Carrabine, 2004, p.23). The loss of freedom, in addition to monetary fines that are imposed on offenders serve to discourage prisoners from committing the crime again. One of the ways of making this method effective is to increase the term for a specified crime. Such an increase has resulted into longer stays for prisoners thus leading to an increase in the population. High conviction rates Conviction rate refers to the number of convictions that a government or prosecutor makes compared to total number of cases that are filed. In a majority of nations, an arrest is usually followed by a court proceeding against the person arrested. Arrestees are aligned in court in order to determine whether or not the person should be convicted. The conviction rate thus represents the frequency of arrests that lead to conviction in relation to the total arrests during a specific time. Conviction rates vary from one country to another or from one judicial system to the other. Some countries publish different conviction rates for drug offenses, kidnapping, traffic offenses and cyber crimes among others. Over time, conviction rates have increased in most nations. Increase in conviction rates occurs as a result of an increase in budgetary allocations to judicial systems. Sufficient budget allows for an increase in staff resulting in an increase in the number of cases presented to court for sentencing. This increases the number of successful convictions. As a result, the population of prisons increases. High conviction rate accounts for about a quarter of the total increase. Higher rates of sentencing contribute to an increase in prison population. Sentencing rate refers to the rate at which arrested persons are sentenced by a court compared to the number aligned before the court. In most judicial systems, the proportion of offenders who received court imposed sentences has increased. The increase pertains to most offenses such as fraudulent property offenders, drug offenders and non regulatory property offenders. Increase in law enforcement An aggregate increase in law enforcement activities has also contributed to the expansion of prison populations. Enforcements trends vary across the various types of offenses, and the duration. Authorities all over the world have stepped up their enforcement activities in order to enforce law and order. This factor contributes to about 5 percent of the total increase. In countries such as the US, the heightened immigration authority has contributed heavily to the increase. Weapon offenses such as possession of a firearm illegally have also led to higher number of inmates. This is as a result of a higher investigation rate, as well as federal arrests. High recidivism rate Recidivism refers to the act of a person repeating a behavior that is undesirable or illegal after efforts to train the person on how to extinguish such a behavior, or after the person has experienced negative consequences as a result of that behavior. In criminology, the term refers to the re arresting of offenders after committing the same crime that got them in prison. Criminal recidivism is related to psychopathy. The psychopathy refers to an uninhibited gratification mostly common in criminals, aggressive or sexual impulses, as well as the inability to learn from ones past mistakes. Studies have shown that individuals suffering from this disorder gain gratification from antisocial behaviors and often lack remorse for such actions. Recidivism rate thus refers to the rate at which offenders who have gone through the prison correction system are arrested again for the same offense. The most common cases of recidivism involve cases related to drunk driving, drug offenses and cyber crimes among others (Haugen and Musser, 2009, p.120). Increasing rates of recidivism has contributed to the increase in prison populations. Violating or unsuccessfully completing community supervision One way of correcting offender is by imposing community service correction method. This method involves offenders reporting to a given community service task for a specified period of time. This method is intended to keep the offenders occupied, as well as deter them from committing the crime again. This method is lenient compared to prison sentences since the offender is not denied the freedom of movement. The offender can either serve a specified time in prison before serving the community, or serve the entire term serving the community depending on the age of the offender and the offense. However, serving community does not guarantee ones freedom since the offender is expected to attend to the duties at the specified time without failure. In order to ensure that offenders perform the duties as directed, each offender is assigned a supervisor who ensures that the community service is done as directed. Any violations are reported to the court, and the consequences go as far as imprisonment. An increase in the rate of violations regarding to community service mainly results in imprisonment (McShane, 2008, p.86). This in turn results to an increase in the population of inmates. Harsher penalties for certain types of offenses In a bid to decrease the rate of certain offenses, judicial systems have opted to impose harsher sentences on offenders. Such crimes include drug offenses, immigration offenses and homicide among others. Offenders committing such crimes stay longer in prison as a measure to deter them from committing the same crime in future, as well as discourage others from committing the same crime. The longer stay in prison means that at any one time, the number of inmates will always be high. The war on drugs has been intensified in most countries around the world. The police have received higher budgetary allocations in order to curd drug offenses among others. They have also increased their investigations on such issues, as well as the number of suspects arrested for the same. The judicial system has contributed to the war by imposing harsher sentences on offenders. Convicted inmates serving a greater portion of their sentences in prison Reforms in the criminal justice system have also contributed in a significant rise in the number of prisoners. This especially refers to the reforms that have resulted in prisoners serving a bigger portion of their sentence term in prison. Under such reforms, the offender spends more time in prison as a measure to deter them from committing the same offense again in the future. The time spent on community service is relatively small. As much as this has led to efficient correction systems, it has resulted in population increase leading to overcrowding in prisons. Poor planning and inaccurate population projections Inaccurate projection of inmates population has resulted in poor planning that has seen population in prisons increase. Lack of proper planning has resulted in overcrowding in prisons, one of the major impacts of population increase. Poor planning has also provided inaccurate data on community correction options. Policy makers have failed to make effective policies on community correction so as to distribute the number of offenders in both systems depending on the offense. This has caused a big proportion of offenders spending their entire term in prison, whereas they could be corrected by use of community correction methods. Measures to reduce incarceration Incarceration refers to the detention of an offender in prison as a punishment for a crime committed. Different judicial systems have different laws that govern the process of incarceration. Incarceration serves four significant purposes. First, it isolates criminals in order to deter them from committing more crimes. Secondly, it serves as a punishment for committing the offense. Thirdly, incarceration serves to deter other people or criminals from committing the same offense. Lastly, it rehabilitates the criminals into productive members of the society. Increase in incarceration impacts directly on population in prisons, which on the other hand has a direct effect on congestion. Reduce laws governing nonviolent crimes According to Treadwell (2006) the current treatment of non violent crimes has greatly increased incarceration in most countries. In some states such as California, the penalty for both minor and non violent offenses ranges from 5 years to life imprisonment (Clear and Cole, 1990). The result is a big percent of prisoners are minor offenders who can use community correction measures. These laws are extremely strict on minor offenders and lead to increasing number of inmates. The best way to handle such crimes is to devise effective community correction methods that do not involve imprisonment. Employment policies Studies have shown that more than half of the prison population consists of people earning below a dollar. Most countries especially the developing countries are characterized by high rates of unemployment. This in turn leads to increased crime as a way of sustaining oneself. Studies have shown that about 70 percent of offenders admit that they were unemployed at the time of the arrest (Guess and Farnham, 2000, p.117). The contribution of high rates of unemployment can be addressed through effective policies on employment. The policies should aim at creating jobs for all citizens in a country, as well as providing incentives for self employment opportunities. This will reduce the rate of unemployment buy providing jobs to would be offenders. This in turn will reduce incarceration. Eliminate profit making prison companies In some nations, US for instance, the criminal justice systems use the services of privately managed prisons, in addition to the government managed prisons. Such companies rely on high incarceration rates for higher profits. The demand of such private facilities is caused by among others, high crime rate, relaxation of law enforcement efforts. All these factors are beyond the control of the private prison facilities. Reducing the demand of these facilities can reduce the rate of incarceration (Petrella, 2013). This can be achieved through a change of sentencing patterns to reduce the number of prison inmates through alternative correction methods. Prison education programs Research has shown that effective prison education programs can reduce the rate of recidivism. In the previous section, recidivism has been identified as a cause of population increase in prisons. An effective education program can reduce the rate at which offenders are re arrested for the same crime. Such an educational program equips inmates with skills that can be applied after they are released from prison (Jacobson, 2005, p.76). This will be effective in reducing recidivism in prisons, and thus reduce incarceration. Conclusion Most countries have been experiencing an increase in the population of inmates mostly due to the nature of their criminal justice systems, increase in conviction rates, an increase in recidivism and increase in law enforcement activities. This has resulted in overcrowding and a strain of facilities and budgetary allocations for the prison departments. Curbing the increasing incarceration can reduce the population burden in many prisons. This can be achieved by implementing effective prison education programs, reducing sentence for minor offenders and enforcing effective employment policies in order to increase employment opportunities.